What does Paul mean when he says that there is no authority except from God? Is an authority which persecutes the children of God, which attacks the faith and which undermines our religion, from God? We shall answer this briefly. Nobody will deny that our senses—sight, sound and thought—are given to us by God. But although we get them from God, what we do with them is up to us. . . . God will judge us righteously for having abused what he gave us to use for good. Likewise, God’s judgment against the authorities will be just, if they have used the powers they have received according to their own ungodliness and not according to the laws of God.

Judas the Galilean revolted in the days of the census,^[1] says Gamaliel in the Acts of the Apostles, and drew away some of the people after him, refusing to obey the order of the Romans and register their goods, for which reason Quirinius had been sent to Syria. . . . But as Judas’s decision was the cause of domestic murders and of a rebellion against the authorities which did much harm to the people, it seems to me that here the apostle is condemning any attempt to imitate him based on the illusion that it is a godly thing to disobey rulers. He has a good deal to say about this, condemning it as a mistaken way of thinking.

The book of Proverbs teaches us that kings do not come to rule apart from the dispensation and will of God: Through me kings reign and princes decree justice.^[1]

The ruler is saved not through much power but through divine grace.

As Paul has already ordered that the law of heavenly righteousness be followed, he now commends earthly law as well, so as not to appear to be slighting it. For if the earthly law is not kept, the heavenly law will not be kept either. The earthly law is a kind of tutor, who helps little children along so that they can tackle a stronger degree of righteousness. For mercy cannot be imputed to anyone who does not seek righteousness.

Therefore, in order to back up the authority and fear of the natural law, Paul bears witness to the fact that God is the author of both and that the ministers of the earthly law have God’s permission to act, so that no one should despise it as a merely human construction. In effect, Paul sees the divine law as being delegated to human authorities.

Paul has a good deal to say on this matter in his other epistles also, placing subjects under their rulers in the same way that household servants are under their masters. He does this to show that Christ did not introduce his laws for the purpose of undermining the state but rather so that it should be better governed.

He does not speak about individual rulers but about the principle of authority itself. For that there should be rulers and ruled and that things should not just lapse into anarchy, with the people swaying like waves from one extreme to the other, is the work of God’s wisdom.

Most rightly, Paul warns against anyone who is puffed up with pride by the fact that he has been called by his Lord into freedom and become a Christian, and therefore thinks that he does not have to keep the status given to him in the course of this life or submit to the higher powers to whom the government of temporal things has been confided for a time. For because we are made of soul and body and as long as we are in this life we make use of temporal things as a means of living this life, it is fitting that, as far as this life is concerned, we be subject to the authorities, i.e., to the people who with some recognition administer human affairs. But as far as the spiritual side is concerned, in which we believe in God and are called into his kingdom, it is not right for us to be subject to any man who seeks to overturn in us the very thing which God has been pleased to grant us so that we might obtain eternal life.

So if anyone thinks that because he is a Christian he does not have to pay taxes or tribute nor show the proper respect to the authorities who take care of these things, he is in very great error. Likewise, if anyone thinks that he ought to submit to the point where he accepts that someone who is his superior in temporal affairs should have authority even over his faith, he falls into an even greater error. But the balance which the Lord himself prescribed is to be maintained: Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s but unto God the things which are God’s.^[1] For although we are called into that kingdom where there will be no power of this world, nevertheless, while we are on the way there and until we have reached that state where every principality and power will be destroyed, let us put up with our condition for the sake of human affairs, doing nothing falsely and in this very thing obeying God, who commands us to do it, rather than men.

This is an argument against those who thought that they were obliged to use their Christian freedom in such a way that they gave honor or paid taxes to nobody. Paul wants to humble such people in any way he can, so that they will not suffer reproach on account of their pride instead of on account of God.

It seems that Paul is speaking of secular authorities, not all of whom will be just, even if they received their authority from God. . . . The ruler is set up by God to judge with righteousness, so that sinners might have reason to be afraid should they sin.

Even priests, bishops and monks must obey the commands of secular rulers. Of course, they must do so insofar as obedience is consistent with godliness. If the rulers demand something which is ungodly, then on no account are they allowed to do it.

The holy apostle teaches us that both authorities and obedience depend entirely on God’s providence, but he does not say that God has specifically appointed one person or another to exercise that authority. For it is not the wickedness of individual rulers which comes from God but the establishment of the ruling power itself. . . . Since God wants sinners to be punished, he is prepared to tolerate even bad rulers.

This injunction does not apply in the case of authorities who persecute the faith. It only applies to those who are going about their proper business.

True and perfect obedience of subjects to their superior is shown not only by their refraining from every untoward action in accordance with his advice but also by their not doing even what is approved without his consent.

Those who disobey the king have committed a crime and will face judgment.

In saying this, Paul was more likely to draw civil governors who were unbelievers to accept the Christian faith and to persuade believers to obey them. For it was commonly rumored in those days that the apostles were guilty of plotting sedition and revolution, aiming in all that they did and said at the subversion of the received institutions. However, when we see that Christ’s command is that we should obey the authorities, all rumors of this kind will be shown to be false.

Paul writes this against those who believe that because of their own power they cannot be apprehended and so therefore they can play fast and loose with the law. He shows them that this is the law of God and that those who by some subterfuge escape it for a time will not escape God’s judgment.

As it was said to Rahab: Whoever goes outside will be responsible for himself.^[1]

It is right to submit to higher authority whenever a command of God is not violated thereby.

Rulers here are kings who are created in order to correct behavior and prevent bad things from happening. They have the image of God, because everyone else is under one head.

This can upset some people, when they think that Christians have often suffered persecution by these authorities. They say: Were these Christians not doing good, since not only did the authorities not praise them, they punished and killed them! The apostle’s words must be carefully considered. He does not say: Do what is good and the authorities will praise you, but: Do what is good and you will have praise from him. Whether someone in authority approves what you do or persecutes you, you will have praise from him, either when you win it by your obedience to God or when you earn your crown by persecution.

The wicked should be afraid of the authorities, but the good have no reason to fear, for they come into glory if they are killed unjustly. Paul says: Take my advice and you will never be afraid. Condemnation of the wicked is in itself commendation of the good.^[1]

In what sense is a judge in this world the servant of God? . . . It seems to me that this question is answered by that passage in the Acts of the Apostles where the decision was taken to impose only certain ritual obligations on Gentile believers.^[1] They were told to abstain from eating what had been sacrificed to idols, from blood and from fornication, but nothing was said about murder, adultery, theft, homosexuality or other crimes which are punished by both divine and human laws. Now if what was explicitly forbidden to the Gentiles was all they had to do, then it would seem as if these other things were all right. But look at how the Holy Spirit has organized everything. Because these other crimes are already punished by secular laws, it seemed superfluous to add a divine prohibition as well. All that he decreed concerned matters which seemed right from the divine point of view but which were not covered by human laws. It is in this way that a human judge acts as a servant of God. For God wants these crimes to be punished by human judges and not by representatives of the church.

Since God has ordained that there will be a future judgment and he does not want anyone to perish, he has ordained rulers in this world who, by causing people to be afraid of them, act as tutors to mankind, teaching them what to do in order to avoid future punishment.

The civil power makes virtue easier for the Christian by chastising the wicked, by benefiting and honoring the good and by working together with the will of God. For this reason he is even given the name of God’s servant. . . . Even when he administers punishment, it is God’s will that he is carrying out.

When Paul says: He is God’s servant for your good, though it be for his own evil, this should be understood in the same way as the above. ^[1] [PSEUDO-]CONSTANTIUS: By saying that the ruler is God’s servant for your good, Paul shows that we must obey the authorities in those things which are right but not in things which are unlawful or which go against the faith. ^[1]

The authorities are concerned for your safety. They also have the responsibility to see to it that if you sin you do not profit thereby, because God does not love the wicked and hates all who work iniquity.^[1]

Paul tells the church not to do anything against the princes and powers of this world so that it may live in peace and quiet. For if the church rebels . . . then it will be punished, not because of its faith but because of its crimes, and instead of dying for a worthy cause people will die for an unworthy one.

One must be subject . . . because of the coming judgment, for whoever escapes now will be punished then, his own conscience accusing him.

What is the meaning of not only to avoid God’s wrath? It means not only because you resist God by not being subject, nor only because you are bringing great evils on yourself both from God and from the ruler, but also because the ruler is a benefactor to you in things of the utmost importance, because he brings you peace and the blessings of civil institutions. States receive countless blessings through these authorities, and if they were taken away, everything would go to pieces.

This is helpful for understanding that because of this life we must be subject and not offer resistance if anyone wants to take something from us, if it is in his power to do so, because authority has been given to him over temporal things, which will pass away. We are not to be subject in those good things which remain forever but only in the needs of this age.

But when he says one must be subject, lest anyone submit to the authorities halfheartedly and not from pure love, Paul adds: not only to avoid . . . wrath but also for the sake of conscience. That is to say, you should not submit simply to avoid the authority’s anger, which can be done by pretense, but so that you might be assured in your conscience that you are doing this out of love for him. For you submit at your Lord’s command. ^[1] [PSEUDO-]CONSTANTIUS: Those who do wrong and who live in opposition to the commandments, are subject to the authorities for their punishment, but those who live rightly are subject for conscience’s sake, because the things which they are commanded to do are just and good. ^[1]

You must be subject, not only because the authorities can become angry even without cause but also so that you may not be condemned for the consciousness of some sin.

For the sake of conscience means in order to do what is right.

Paul is saying here that we bear witness to the benefits which the ruler gives us by paying him a salary. The taxation system may seem to be burdensome and annoying, but Paul turns it into proof that rulers care for their people. Why, after all, do we pay taxes to the emperor? Is it not because he provides for us? We would not have paid it in the first place if we did not know that we are the ones who benefit from this government. It was for this reason that the men of old agreed that rulers should be maintained by the people, because they neglect their own affairs in order to devote themselves entirely to the public welfare, spending all their energy in order to protect us.

Taxes can also mean taxes for the priests, which were set up for them by God.^[1] Or this may mean that you pay taxes to rulers because, in possessing the world, you subjected yourselves to them willingly. Paul calls them God’s servants, so that people might render to them what they owe,^[2] lest it seem that Christ taught his followers pride.

So far as concerns the honors due to king or emperor, we have a clear ruling to be subject in all obedience, according to the apostle’s command, to magistrates and princes and those in authority, but within the limits of Christian discipline, i.e., so long as we keep ourselves free of idolatry.

The authorities demand taxes on our property and revenue from our business transactions. What can I say? Jesus Christ himself was obliged to pay taxes, not because he owed anything but so as not to cause scandal.^[1] If he who owed nothing to Caesar and who had every right to refuse to pay taxes nevertheless agreed to pay them, who are we to refuse to do so?

Giving honor to the powers that be in this world may have the effect that, if they see the humility of Christ’s servants, they may praise rather than curse the gospel’s teaching.

Paul urges the people to give their rulers not only money but honor and fear as well. Fear in this context means very great honor, not the kind of fear which comes from a bad conscience.

Even alms can be called a due.^[1] Revenue is ours to give to those who are passing by or to those who are seated by the roadside while we pass by. . . . Fear as well as honor must be given to those who are your superiors but only honor to your peers.

Taxes refers to property taxes; revenue refers to sales taxes.

Taxes and revenue are the same thing.

In many cases debt is equivalent to sin. Paul therefore wants us to owe nothing on account of sin and to steer clear of debts of this kind, retaining only the debt which springs from love, which we ought to be repaying every day.

Paul wants us to have peace with everyone and love the brethren. Then we shall not owe anybody anything.

He who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law of Moses. The commandment of the new law is that we should love our enemies also.^[1]

Love is a debt which you owe to your brother because of your spiritual relationship to him. . . . If love departs from us, the whole body is torn in pieces. Therefore love your brother, for if you can fulfill the law by befriending him, then the benefit you receive puts you in his debt.

Paul shows that the fulfillment of the law is found in love, i.e., in charity. Thus also the Lord says that the whole law and prophets depend on these two precepts, the love of God and neighbor.^[1] So he who came to fulfill the law gave love through the Holy Spirit, so that charity might accomplish what fear could not.

The only way of cleaving to that pattern^[1] is by love. If we love another whom we believe to be righteous, we cannot but love the pattern itself, which shows us what the righteous soul is, in order that we too may become righteous. Indeed, if we did not love the image of God in him, we would have no love for the person, since our love for him is based on the pattern. Yet so long as we ourselves are not righteous, our love of the pattern is not enough to make us righteous.

Do not fail to repay debts. Only the debt of love should remain, because it can never be paid in full. According to the parable of the Lord, who bids us show mercy to everyone without distinction, we must think of every person as our neighbor.^[1] Paul mentioned love first because he was writing to the faithful and dealing with behavior proper to righteousness.

If you love somebody, you will not kill him. Nor will you commit adultery, steal from him or bear false witness against him. It is the same with all the other commands of the law: love ensures that they are kept.

Moses wrote all this in order to reform the natural law. . . . Although there may be other laws which Paul has not mentioned, love is the fulfillment of them all. For if the human race had loved from the beginning, there would never have been any wickedness on earth. For the result of unright-eousness is discord.

The beginning and the end of virtue is love. . . . But Paul is not looking merely for love; he wants it to be an intense love. For he does not say merely: Love your neighbor, but adds: as yourself. Christ himself said that the law and the prophets hang upon this.^[1]

Note that love has two excellent qualities: it abstains from evil and does good deeds.

This law is not written on tables of stone but is shed abroad in our hearts through the Holy Spirit who is given to us.^[1]

No one loves his neighbor unless he loves God, and by loving him as himself, to the limit of his ability, he pours out his love on him so that he too may love God. But if he does not love God, he loves neither himself nor his neighbor.

The whole of righteousness is summed up in the love of one’s neighbor. Unrighteousness is born when we love ourselves more than others. For one who loves his neighbor as himself not only does him no wrong but also does him good. He knows how much he wishes both aspects to be done with regard to himself.

If a man is well disposed by love for another person, he will not kill the one he loves, nor will he rape his wife, nor will he steal goods or do anything which might harm them.

Every law either forbids evil or tells us to do good. Legislators pass the first kind of law in order that we should not harm one another and the second kind in order that we should help one another as far as possible. But they are all summed up in the one command that we should love our neighbor.

Paul is using the words of the law to arrive at the meaning of the gospel. Therefore when he records the fulfilling of the law he ties it to the gospel, demonstrating that both have a single author. Yet in the time of Christ it was necessary to add something, viz., that we should love our enemies as well as our neighbors. . . . What does it mean to love an enemy, except to choose not to hate him any longer and to seek to do him no harm? . . . For the Lord himself on the cross prayed for his enemies^[1] in order to demonstrate what the fullness of righteousness, which he had taught, actually was.

The rule of love is that one should wish his friend to have all the good things he wants to have himself and should not wish the evils to befall his friend which he wishes to avoid himself.^[1] He shows this benevolence to all men. No evil must be done to any. Love of one’s neighbor works no evil. Let us then love even our enemies as we are commanded, if we wish to be truly unconquered. ^[2] THE ^[1]

Even not to do good is wrong. For if one sees that one’s neighbor is in danger of starvation, does one not kill him if, while one has an abundance, one does not give him food, though one has not used up one’s own provisions?^[1] For anyone who is able to help someone close to death in whatever situation of need kills that person if he does not come to his aid.

Therefore, whatever you do, do it for the love of Christ, and let the intention or end of all your actions look to him. Do nothing for the sake of human praise but everything for the love of God and the desire for eternal life. Then you will see the end of all perfection, and when you have reached it you will want nothing more.

When we realized what the advantages of good works are, the message of salvation became easier to understand than it was when we first believed. For when we believed in Christ we did not immediately acquire an exact understanding of what we should be doing, nor was it clear to us what we should stop doing and what we should continue doing.

Paul says that the time has come when we must hasten to obtain our reward. This is what it means to wake up from sleep—to do good as if it were day, i.e., openly. . . . It is clear that if we live well after baptism and strive for love we are not far from the reward of the promised resurrection. For the good life of a Christian is the sign of future salvation. For when a person is baptized he is forgiven but not rewarded. Later, as he walks in newness of life, he is near to eternal life.

The time is short. . . . The day of resurrection and of the terrible judgment is fast approaching. . . . If you have done everything that was asked of you and are prepared for it, then you have nothing to fear, but if you have not, then look out! Paul is not trying to frighten his hearers but to encourage them, so as to detach them from their love of the things of this world. It was not unlikely that at the beginning of their endeavors they would be more dedicated and slacken off as time went on. But Paul wants them to do the opposite—not to slacken as time goes on but to become even more dedicated. For the nearer the King is, the more they ought to be ready to receive him.

This relates to 2 Corinthians [6:2]: Behold, now is the acceptable time, now is the day of salvation. Paul means by this the time of the gospel and the opportunity to save all those who believe in God.

It is the hour for you to strive for that which is more perfect and complete, for you should not always be children and infants. . . . Let us together rise from the sleep of idleness and ignorance, for now the knowledge of Christ shines forth. With the increase of knowledge our salvation is nearer than it was when we first believed.

Our salvation means the general resurrection on the last day, for it is then that we shall enjoy true salvation.

Every day the end comes closer, and we are already on the threshold of the resurrection.

By day and light he designates figuratively the Son, and by the armor of light he means the promises.

This may be understood in both a universal and in a particular sense. In the first instance, the light is dawning everywhere, and the reign of darkness over the world is rapidly coming to an end. . . . In the second instance, if we have Christ in our hearts he gives us light. Therefore if the reason of knowledge drives away our ignorance and if we turn away from unworthy deeds and do what is right, we are in the light and are walking honestly as if in the day.

The day is the time of this life which remains to us, in which we can do good works. The night is the future, in which it will no longer be possible to work. Then we shall lie in the darkness, having lost the chance to do good works.

Night means the old man,^[1] who is renewed through baptism. Paul says that he has passed away like the night and that the day is near, i.e., the sun of righteousness, by whose light the truth appears to us so that we may know what to do. For before we were in the dark, being ignorant of Christ. But when we learned of him the light rose on us and we passed from the false to the true.

The darkness refers to carnal sins, which are done by worldly enticements. . . . But to put on the armor of light is to do good deeds.

The day is calling us to get ready for the battle. Do not be afraid at the thought of bearing arms. It is a heavy and distasteful duty when we have to bear a visible suit of armor, but in this case it is desirable and worth it. For the arms we are called to bear are those of the light!

Paul said this, yet look at how many years have passed since then! Yet what he said was not untrue. How much more probable it is that the coming of the Lord is near now, when there has been such an increase of time toward the end! ^[1] WALKING ^[1]

Paul likens knowledge to the day and ignorance to the night, in accordance with what Hosea says: I have likened your mother to the night; my people have become as those who have no knowledge.^[1] Let us therefore cast off the works of ignorance and put on the armor of light, that is, works of light.

By day Paul means the time since the coming of Christ, for his appearing has made it much easier to tell the difference between good and evil. Night refers to the time before his coming.

Night refers to the time of ignorance, whereas day refers to the time after the Lord’s coming.

These are the works of darkness, which are also called the works of the flesh, in which people bind their flesh to luxury and uncleanness rather than to holiness or the Lord. Reveling refers to dishonorable and extravagant banqueting, which inevitably is prone to sexual immorality. . . . Quarrel-ing and jealousy are really acts of the mind, but like everything else here, they are called acts of the flesh.

Let us live our lives in the same way now as we are going to live in the day, that is, in the future world.

It is true that people do not sin in public, so let us behave as if we were constantly in the public eye. For there is nothing more public than the truth. . . .

Crimes are hatched in large supplies of wine, and many kinds of lust are stirred up. Therefore banquets of this kind are to be avoided. . . . Debauchery is another result of this sort of thing. Paul was right to warn them against quarreling and jealousy, because both of these things lead to enmity.

Paul does not forbid alcohol; he is opposed only to its excessive use. Nor does he prohibit sexual intercourse; rather, he is against fornication. What he wants to do is to get rid of the deadly passions of lust and anger. Therefore he does not merely attack them but goes to their source as well. For nothing kindles lust or wrath so much as excessive drinking.

Just as the light of day keeps everyone from doing what he would freely do at night, so too, knowledge keeps us from ignoring the commands of the law. A revel is a luxurious banquet, but we have a spiritual feast.^[1] Moreover, that drunkenness is ruinous and an oc-casion for debauchery is further proved by the fact that Paul has added licentiousness. That quarrelling and jealousy are also objects of reproach is demonstrated both here and by many other examples.^[2]

Let the wife always make use of a plain dress, dignified, softer than that allowed her husband but not one that offends grossly against modesty nor one made with a view only to softness. Let the clothes be in keeping with the person’s age, with the individual himself, the place, his character and occupation. The apostle well advises us: Put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires.

We have often said that Christ is wisdom, righteousness, holiness, truth and all the other virtues. Therefore anyone who has acquired these has put on Christ. For if all these are Christ, then the person who has them must of necessity have Christ as well. Whoever has them will not bother about the flesh. The apostle speaks here with some care, because he knows that we must take some thought for the needs of the flesh. It is the excesses and lusts of the flesh, not its basic needs, which must be avoided.

The Lord Jesus Christ himself . . . is said to be the clothing of the saints.

This means that we should imitate Christ in what we do and show him to others in the way we behave.

Paul wants everything the law forbids not to be desired, or if it is desired, to be overcome. . . . To put on Christ means to cut oneself off from every sin and wickedness, so that at the wedding banquet one will not be found without a new garment and be shamefully thrown out into the darkness.

Here Paul no longer speaks of works, but rather he rouses his hearers to greater things. When he was speaking of vice he talked about its works, but now that he is speaking about virtue, he does not speak about works but about armor. . . . Even more strikingly, he talks about the Lord Jesus Christ as the garment we are to put on, for whoever is clothed with him has all virtue.

When Paul says make no provision for the flesh, he is not speaking of necessities but of ex-cess. That is why he adds the qualifying phrase: to gratify its desires.

Provision for the flesh is not to be condemned if it has to do with the needs of bodily health. But if it is a question of unnecessary delights or luxuries, a person who enjoys the delights of the flesh is rightly chastised. For in that case he makes provision for the desires of the flesh, and he who sows in the flesh will reap corruption in the flesh.^[1]

Christ alone should be seen in us, not the old self,^[1] for one who says he abides in Christ should walk as he walked.^[2]

Paul wants to say that by the regeneration of baptism we have been conformed to Christ and become members of the one body of the church, of which he is the head, and so we must put him on in the understanding of what we are expecting, in that we hope to share in his resurrection.