In the passages now before us, an account is given of various visions that were beheld on particular occasions and of which only the prophet was aware and which therefore lacked any importance as signs or revelations so far as the barbarian nations were concerned. But they were written down only so a record of the things beheld might be preserved for posterity.

Up to these words the blessed Daniel has written his prophecy more in the style of a historian. First, remember at the beginning he related what happened to those captured in war, and he adds how God, the author of all, was greatly concerned about these matters. Then he tells how Nebuchadnezzar paid the penalty for his cruelty and arrogance and then how Belshazzar suffered for his disrespectful use of the sacred vessels. Once the latter had been killed by a divine blow and his empire handed over to the Medes, Daniel went on to write those things that happened to himself and to Darius and explained how it was that Darius favored him, what sorts of plots Daniel had to endure at the hands of the generals and satraps, and how he was delivered from their hands by divine aid. Having expounded these things in a historian’s fashion, now Daniel begins to expound those predictions that he had learned through revelations. First he sets forth the revelation of the four beasts, quite similar to the dream of Nebuchadnezzar. However, Daniel sees the fourfold content manifested in only one image, while Nebuchadnezzar saw four beasts ascending from the one sea. But lest anyone think that we are forced to say the same things again, let us turn to interpret the individual elements of the prophecy, where this truth will be openly demonstrated.

The four winds of heaven I supposed to have been angelic powers to whom the principalities have been committed.^[1] . . . The sea signifies this world^[2] and the present age, overwhelmed with salty and bitter waves, in accordance with the Lord’s own interpretation of the dragnet cast into the sea.^[3]

For his part, Nebuchadnezzar sees the image, drawing a lesson in the futility of things of this life and the fact that they are appearances, as the divine apostle asserts, and not realities, there is nothing lasting or stable in them, everything fluid and failing and fading.^[1] Daniel, [by contrast], is gazing at a sea, gaining a lesson in the haze of the present life. After all, when a prisoner of war is compelled to see a foreign land, he fittingly learns to recognize the storms and tempests of life. And since the king too was haughty because of his silver, bronze and iron, he is given the mysteries concerning the kingdoms through a statue composed of the very same materials.^[2] In this way he perceives the successions of kings and is admonished lest he be removed because of a kingdom liable to swift and sudden change. . . .

He calls life the sea since it has those countless and great storms; he calls the changes of regimes winds, since they act against the very onslaught. For just as the streams rush to the north whenever the south wind blows and the wind is driven southward again when the north wind stirs up the sea, so when the Assyrians obtained dominion over the whole world, they drew all their conquered people to their land; but when the kingdom was handed over to the Persians, there was also a confluence of their subjects to the Persians. And when the Macedonians in turn obtained the scepter, all brought to them twice the usual tribute, except for those to whom they had been previously obedient. And when the Romans acquired command over all nations, every-one rushed to the west and thought nothing of the Macedonians. And the Macedonians themselves were counted now as one of the conquered nations. Quite appropriately then he compares the changes of the wind with the changes of regimes, since the winds drive sailors now this way, now that way. Therefore, he mentioned the four winds, since there were four successions of kingdoms. But he teaches us in what manner the beasts differ among themselves.

But as for the four beasts who came up out of the sea and were differentiated from one another, we may identify them from the angel’s discourse. These four great beasts, he says, are four kingdoms that shall rise up from the earth. And as for the winds that strove in the great sea, they are called winds of heaven because each one of the angels does for his realm the duty entrusted to him. This too should be noted, that the fierceness and cruelty of the kingdoms concerned are indicated by the term beasts.

As various beasts then were shown to the blessed Daniel, and these were different from each other, we should understand that the truth of the narrative deals not with certain beasts but, under the type and image of different beasts, exhibits the kingdoms that have risen in this world in power over the race of humankind. For by the great sea he means the whole world.

But the prophet, full of disdain for these various metals, sees four beasts. From those four beasts he understands that those four formidable kingdoms, which will strike fear into all people, will at last have an end, but there will be only one kingdom that will remain for all time without any end, namely, the kingdom that God has prepared for his saints.^[1]

Now since these things, spoken as they are with a mystical meaning, may seem to some hard to understand, we shall keep back nothing fitted to impart an intelligent apprehension of them to those who are possessed of a sound mind. He said, then, that a lioness came up from the sea, and by that he meant the kingdom of the Babylonians in the world, which also was the head of gold on the image. In saying that it had wings as of an eagle, he meant that Nebuchadnezzar the king was lifted up and was exalted against God. Then he says the wings were plucked, that is to say, his glory was destroyed; for he was driven out of his kingdom. And the words a man’s heart was given to it, and it was made to stand on the feet as a man, refer to the fact that he repented and recognized himself to be only a man and gave the glory to God.

The kingdom of the Babylonians was not called a lion but a lioness,^[1] on account of its brutality and cruelty, or else because of its luxurious, lust-serving manner of life. For writers on the natural history of beasts assert that lionesses are fiercer than lions, especially if they are nursing their cubs, and constantly are passionate in their desire for sexual relations. And as for the fact that she possessed eagle’s wings, this indicates the pride of the all-powerful kingdom, the ruler of which declares in Isaiah, Above the stars of heaven I will place my throne, and I shall be like unto the Most High.^[2] Therefore he is told, Though you are borne on high like an eagle, from there I will drag you down.^[3] Moreover, just as the lion occupies kingly rank among beasts, so also the eagle among the birds. But it should also be said that the eagle enjoys a long span of life and that the kingdom of Assyrians had held sway for many generations. And as for the fact that the wings of the lioness or eagle were torn away, this signifies the other kingdoms over which it had ruled and soared about in the world.

This passage Daniel places the strongest of the beasts in the first kingdom; he does not imply that the first beast possessed greater might but only that it was nobler. Nonetheless, he saw those wings plucked out, that is, abandoned by all the people who had been subjected to it and deprived of its earlier power. He says, and it was removed from the earth, that is, it ceased to reign. And it stood on the feet of a man, that is, it turned out to be equal to those who had been subjected to it. And the heart of a man was given to it. Experience teaches us to think about human matters, and it teaches us not to go beyond the boundaries of nature with the thoughts of our minds. Because they had been afflicted with the disease of haughtiness and boundless arrogance when they had held the helm of state, Isaiah said, God will stir up the prince of the Assyrians against their great mind.^[1] Experience rightly teaches them to think about human matters, when they see that fortunes change and that happiness is slippery and transient. They will come to learn who they are and so acquire a human heart. Thus Daniel speaks about the things that pertain to the first beast.

This beast obviously represents the kingdom of the Babylonians. The present vision of Daniel perfectly fits in with the already mentioned dream of Nebuchadnezzar, who saw a statue, and it forms a single and same prophecy with it. Indeed, as the Babylonian kingdom, in that dream, was compared with gold, which is the noblest among metals, here it is described as a lion, which is the strongest of all beasts, and an eagle, which is of the highest perniciousness among birds.

The second beast resembling a bear is the same as that of which we read in the vision of the statue, His chest and arms were of silver.^[1] In the former case the comparison was based on the hardness of the metal, in this case on the ferocity of the bear. For the Persian kingdom followed a rigorous and frugal manner of life after the manner of the Spartans, and that too to such an extent that they used to use salt and nasturtium cress in their relish.^[2]

Here he indicates the Persian kingdom, which he states to have been like a bear because of the cruelty and savageness of the punishments it meted out. For the Persians were the cruelest of all the barbarians when it came to punishing. They would rip out the very hearts of offenders, or they would contrive long tortures in which they would sever the guilty limb by limb. They were always inflicting a harsh death on whomever they punished.

These are the symbols of the kingdom of Darius, king of the Medes. As in the statue of Nebuchadnezzar the Mede empire had been foreshadowed under the aspect of silver, which is a viler metal than gold, so in this dream it is indicated by the image of the bear, which is less agile than the lion. In addition he says that the beast was raised up on one side, because Darius received a kingdom that was confined within the limits of his power and was never extended to that greatness, which the previous kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar had reached by including all the surrounding regions.

The three nations he calls three ribs. The meaning, therefore, is this: that beast had the dominion, and these others under it were the Medes, Assyrians and Babylonians.

But as for the three rows or ranks that were in his mouth and between his teeth, one authority has interpreted this to mean that allusion was made to the fact that the Persian kingdom was divided up among three princes, just as we read in the sections dealing with Belshazzar and with Darius that there were three princes who were in charge of the 120 satraps. . . . Therefore the three rows in the mouth of the Persian kingdom of the Babylonians, the Medes and the Persians, all of which were reduced to a single realm.

The Persians ruled three parts of the world: the east, the north and the south. Cyrus . . . brought into submission all the east, as far as the Hellespont. His son subdued Egypt and made the Ethiopians subject to him. Darius^[1] . . . acquired the realm of the nomadic Scythians, to whom it had been destined to inhabit the northern realms. And Xerxes the son of Darius tried to join Europe under his rule. But he was defeated by the Athenians in a naval battle and had to return home in shame. He realized that the defeat had been caused by his insatiable greed. Therefore Daniel says, Three wings were in its mouth. Some manuscripts read ribs, but it really does not make any difference. Whether three ribs or three wings are placed in its mouth, it teaches that the Persian Empire harvested the fruits of three parts of the world and took tribute from everywhere. And he rightly stated in its mouth to show the tribute that would be paid by all to it.

And as for the information, devour flesh in abundance, this refers to the time when in the reign of the Ahasuerus, whom the Septuagint calls Artaxerxes, the order was given, at the suggestion of Haman the Agagite, that all the Jews be slaughtered on a single day.^[1] And very properly, instead of saying, He was devouring them the account specifies, Thus they spoke to him. This shows that the matter was only attempted and was by no means ever carried out.

In mentioning the leopard, he means the kingdom of the Greeks, over whom Alexander of Macedon was king. And he likened them to a leopard, because they were quick and inventive in thought and bitter in heart, just as that animal is many-colored in appearance and quick in wounding and in drinking human blood.

These words concern the kingdom of the Persians. Indeed, what in the statue of Nebuchadnezzar had been indicated under the aspect of bronze, a very hard metal, here is seen under the image of the leopard, an extremely agile and harmful beast. [The beast] is also provided with four wings and four heads. This is because it brought its dominion to the four winds of heaven. And dominion was given to it: this is a reference to the multitude of peoples to be submitted. This passage must be compared with the prophecy of Isaiah: He will strip kings of their robes, etc.^[1] In that same prophet we can read these words said about Cyrus to Cyrus by God.

And it had four wings. There was never, after all, any victory won more quickly than Alexander’s, for he traversed all the way from Illyricum and the Adriatic Sea to the Indian Ocean and the Ganges River, not merely fighting battles but winning decisive victories; and in six years he subjugated to his rule a portion of Europe and all of Asia.

The four heads refer to the division of the empire that took place after Alexander. Four kings were established instead of one. The rulership of Egypt was entrusted to Ptolemy, son of Lagos; the realm of the Orient was granted to Seleucus; Antigonus acquired Asia; and Antipater Macedonia (although some historians say that Alexander’s brother, Philip, also known as Aridaeus) acquired Macedonia. The four heads then allude to the four kingdoms that arose after Alexander, and the four wings allude to the principate of Alexander itself, who conquered the four parts of the world. Moreover, Daniel said that power was given to the beast, because it had obtained those very things that earlier kings had not obtained. Nonetheless, also that kingdom, which was superior to all others, came to an end.

And by the four heads reference is made to his generals . . . Ptolemy, Seleucus, Philip and Antigonus. And power was given to it shows that the empire did not result from Alexander’s bravery but from the will of God.

That there has arisen no other kingdom after that of the Greeks except that which stands sovereign at present is manifest to all. This one has iron teeth, because it subdues and reduces all by its strength, just as iron does. And the rest it did tread with its feet, for there is no other kingdom remaining after this one, but from it will spring ten horns.

The fourth empire is the Roman Empire, which now occupies the entire world. . . . The Hebrews believe that the beast that is here not named is the one spoken of in the Psalms: A boar from the forest laid her waste, and a strange wild animal consumed her.^[1] Instead of this the Hebrews read, All the beasts of the field have torn her. While they are all included in the one empire of the Romans, we recognize at the same time those kingdoms that were previously separate. And as for the next statement . . . devouring and crushing and pounding all the rest to pieces under his feet, this signifies that all nations have either been slain by the Romans or else have been subjected to tribute and servitude.

He calls the Roman Empire the fourth beast, but he does not give it a name because the Roman state was forged together from very many nations and so acquired mastery over the whole world. First it was governed by kings, then by the people, then by the aristocracy, and at last it returned to the first mode of government, monarchy. He states that this beast is fearsome and very awe-inspiring, because this was the mightiest kingdom of all the other kingdoms. And in the statue that Nebuchadnezzar saw, he put down the fourth metal as iron. Just as iron crushes and breaks everything, so this empire would crush and break everything.

Then he tells that the fourth beast would arrive in all sorts of different ways and nothing could be compared with it, it was so different. But at last it conquered all the other kingdoms. The other empires all got their strength from the speed by which they conquered, but this beast would have its strength in its teeth, made of iron. And he trampled the rest with his feet. He understands many wars.

Now the fourth beast has swallowed up the third. And this third consists of the children of Japhet, and the fourth consists of the children of Shem, for they are the children of Esau. When Daniel saw the vision of the four beasts, he saw first the children of Ham, the seed of Nimrod, which the Babylonians are; and second, the Persians and Medes, who are the children of Japhet; and third, the Greeks, the brothers of the Medes; and fourth, the children of Shem, which the children of Esau are. For a confederacy was formed between the children of Japhet and the children of Shem. Then the government was taken away from the children of Japhet, the younger, and was given to Shem, the elder; and to this day it continues and will continue for ever. But when the time of the consummation of the dominion of the children of Shem shall have come, the ruler, who came forth from the children of Judah, shall receive the kingdom, when he shall come in his second advent.

This is Alexander, king of the Greeks, and the prophet says that he is similar to iron, which is the hardest among metals. He adds that the beast is armed with iron teeth, and with this symbol he indicates Alexander’s powerful armies, which nearly subdued all kings. Then he adds that it was seen while devouring or trampling all that came its way, while destroying everything. With these words he predicted that Alexander would have attacked the vastness of almost all provinces, would have robbed their inhabitants and would have abandoned their fields and estates to his soldiers for pillage and destruction, so that it seemed that he had squeezed the entire world and all its precious things under a press and had offered all this to his soldiers in order that they might trample it.

As the prophet said already of the leopard, that the beast had four heads and that was fulfilled, and Alexander’s kingdom was divided into four principalities, so also now we ought to look for the ten horns that are to spring from it, when the time of the beast shall be fulfilled, and the little horn, which is antichrist, shall appear suddenly in their midst, and righteousness shall be banished from the earth, and the whole world shall reach its consummation. So we ought not to anticipate the counsel of God but exercise patience and prayer that we do not fall on such times. We should not, however, refuse to believe that these things will come to pass. For if the things that the prophets predicted in former times have not been realized, then we need not look for these things. But if those former things did happen in their proper seasons, as was foretold, these things also shall certainly be fulfilled.

Porphyry^[1] assigned the last two beasts, that of the Macedonians and that of the Romans, to the one realm of the Macedonians and divided them up as follows. He claimed that the leopard was Alexander himself and that the beast that was dissimilar to the others represented the four successors of Alexander, and then he enumerates ten kings up to the time of Antiochus, surnamed Epiphanes, and who were very cruel. And he did not assign the kings themselves to separate kingdoms, for example, Macedon, Syria, Asia or Egypt, but rather he made out the various kingdoms a single realm consisting of a series. This he did of course in order that the words which were written: a mouth uttering overweening boasts might be considered as spoken about Antiochus instead of about antichrist.

That is to say, I looked intently at the beast and was astonished at everything about it, but especially at the number of the horns. For the appearance of this beast differed from that of the other beasts in kind.

We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world among themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings, that is, the king of Egypt, the king of [North] Africa and the king of Ethiopia, as we shall show more clearly in our later discussion. Then, after they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. And behold, he continues, there were eyes similar to human eyes in that horn. Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form . . . and a mouth uttering overweening boasts. . . .^[1] For this is the man of sin, the son of perdition, and that also to such a degree that he dares to sit in the temple of God, making himself out to be like God.

Here he alludes to the antichrist, who arises among the ten horns, and he states that the antichrist will pluck out root and all three horns before himself. This means that he will overpower three kings of the ten who would reign at that time. And he calls it a little horn, as it was born from the little tribe of the Jews. However, he also calls it eminent since he would be noble. By its eyes he refers to its prudence and astuteness, by which he will deceive many. And yet he speaks of its mouth speaking great things, which refers to its arrogance and haughtiness.

Who are the ten kings? What is the little horn? I say that the antichrist will appear among a certain number of kings. And in that horn were eyes like the eyes of a human and a mouth boasting great things. What greater boast can be said with that mouth than this thing that is said, He will place himself above everything that is called God or divine, so much so that he will sit in the temple of God?^[1] Do not marvel if he has the eyes of a human, even if he speaks such things. He is a person. Why does the horn appear to be little and not big in the beginning? It will grow after this time and will rule certain kingdoms. Why? No kingdom will conquer this king, but God will abolish and destroy him.

This is Antiochus, the persecutor of the Jews, who sprang up in the midst of the ten kings and grew up. And this last horn, he says, after three of the earlier horns were plucked by the roots, spoke arrogantly. Since there is here a hint of the fall of the previous three horns, it must be referred to the grandchildren and successors of the three past kings. Indeed the arrogant words, which this small horn spoke, are the insults and blasphemies thrown against God.

When scripture wishes to expound on the kingdoms, it uses the metaphor of beasts. A kingdom is an incorporeal object; therefore, some type of body has to be ascribed to it. And was it not fitting to describe kingdoms as beasts? Most certainly. For since the qualities of those kingdoms exist chiefly in those beasts, so he found them useful. He wished to show fierce arrogance and luxury, and he made use of a lioness. He wished to show slowness, and he made use of a bear. He wished to show speed and briskness and such as would overthrow all empires by its wars; thus he introduced a leopard. Look how earlier he had seen a beautiful sea, which represented the whole earth. For the world is filled with so many tumults and is stirred up in the same way that the sea is stirred up, although the sea is filled with fish, not humans. Christ even declares this to be the case, namely, that the present life is the sea, when he says, The kingdom of heaven is like a dragnet thrown into the sea, which brings together fish of every kind.^[1] And behold, Daniel says, the four winds of the heavens rushed on the great sea. He declares that those beasts then went forth from there, and so he shows the swiftness of divine providence. For when we talk about speed, we introduce the figure of the winds. Daniel says that the winds rushed on the sea and the beasts emerged from the sea, for our leaders partake of our nature. So he often calls a king a lion, wishing to show its royal dignity and yet its feral nature. Or he does so because that wind is an easterly one, this wind is a northerly one, and yet another is a southerly one. It is as if someone had said, He overturns the sea; the winds from the sky have stirred it up.

Daniel prophesies of the last judgment in such a way as to indicate that Antichrist shall first come, and to carry on his description to the eternal reign of the saints. For when in prophetic vision he had seen four beasts, signifying four kingdoms, and the fourth conquered by a certain king, who is recognized as Antichrist, and after this the eternal kingdom of the Son of Man, that is to say, of Christ.

Are they not the thrones concerning which our Lord said, You will sit on twelve thrones?^[1] . . . Beloved, do not imagine God as having anything like a body, and do not think that God, who is boundless, can be confined to a throne. For if in his hands are the boundaries of the earth, and if he erected the mountains, and if all the nations are reckoned as spittle in his sight and if all things are as dust before him,^[2] as he himself says, what place would be able to enclose him altogether at one time? What shall we say? The state of affairs cannot be exactly as it is described; God is not confined to a throne. If he was wearing clothing, how would fire not consume it? And why is that one called the Ancient of Days, when he existed before all ages? In what way can he even be said to be ancient, since the Scripture says, You are always the same.^[3] Why then is he called ancient, when it is written, And your years will not come to an end? And what would be the garment to be cast around a boundless and incorporeal being? For it says, There is no end to his greatness.^[4] And again, If I ascend into heaven, you are there; if I descend into hell, you are there.^[5] How then can he be restrained by human clothing and yet not consume it? But truly the prophet was able to see and read many other things of this type. How were his hairs not burned with fire?

It is fitting for us to know that God is incorporeal, simple and without form and that he admits of no circumscription. Although it pertains to his nature not to be able to be circumscribed, very often to help us he makes use of visions, whenever he wills. And one can see that he appears to Abraham in one way, to Moses in another and to Isaiah in yet another; likewise, he showed Ezekiel still a different appearance. Therefore, whenever you see the variety of revelation, do not think that God has many forms, but rather listen to God as he speaks through the prophet Hosea: I multiplied the visions, and I was proclaimed in parables in the warnings of the prophets.^[1] He said, I adopted likenesses, not I appeared. He fashions in a vision however it suits him. So too blessed Ezekiel, when he had at length pondered on him whom he had seen to consist of gold and fire, added as he narrated the vision, These things are an image of the glory of the Lord.^[2] And he did not say that he had seen the Lord or even the Lord’s glory but rather something resembling the glory of the Lord.

And so the many thrones that Daniel saw seem to me to be what John called the twenty-four thrones. And the Ancient of Days is the one who, according to John, sits alone on his throne. Likewise the Son of man, who came to the Ancient of Days, is the same as he who, according to John, is called the lion of the tribe of Judah,^[1] the root of David and the titles of that sort. I imagine that these thrones are the ones of which the apostle Paul says, Whether thrones or dominions. . . .^[2] And in the Gospel we read, You yourselves shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.^[3] And God is called the one who sits and who is the Ancient of Days, in order that his character as eternal judge might be indicated.

Let him then be standing for you that you may not be afraid of him sitting; for when sitting he judges, as Daniel says, the thrones were placed, and the books were opened, and the Ancient of Days did sit. But in Psalm 81 [82] it is written, God stood in the congregation of gods and decides among the gods.^[1] So then when he sits he judges, when he stands he decides, and he judges concerning the imperfect but decides among the gods. Let him stand for you as a defender, as a good shepherd, lest the fierce wolves assault you.

Remember the vision of Daniel and how he brings the judgment before us . . . clearly disclosing in the hearing of all, angels and human beings, things good and evil, things done openly and in secret, deeds, words and thoughts all at once. What then must those people be who have lived wicked lives? Where then shall that soul hide that in the sight of all these spectators shall suddenly be revealed in its fullness of shame? With what kind of body shall it sustain those endless and unbearable pangs . . . without end? There is no release after death; no device, no means of coming forth from the chastisement of pain.

Let us strive with our minds to understand, beloved, for it is no small matter that we are discussing. He says, Thrones were set, and the Ancient of Days was seated. Who is he? When you heard about a bear, you did not think about a bear; when you heard about a lioness, you did not perceive that animal but rather kingdoms; and when you heard about the sea, you did not perceive a sea but rather the world. Each time you thought of something else as being present in those images. That is also the case now. What is an Ancient of Days? He is similar to an old man. Now this old man takes shape for the purposes for which he appears. And here he shows that old men must be entrusted with rendering judgment. For just as when you hear the word throne, you do not understand it to mean a mere chair—for who would lay hold of such a base and vulgar meaning, when God seems fully armed here and bloodthirsty there?—so he wishes this to mean that it is a time for judgment. His clothing was white as snow. Why? It is not only a time of judgment but also retribution. All those must stand before him because his judgment will go forth like the light.^[1]

The Ancient of Days is, for Daniel, nothing more than the Lord, God and Master of all, the Father of Christ himself.

And again, The Ancient of Days sat, here again, taking the term ancient as among those laudatory expressions that confer highest glory. Elsewhere the Scripture takes the term old in the sense of blame; for seeing that the things are of various aspects as being composed of many parts, it uses the same words both in a good and an evil import, not according to the same shade of meaning.

By things of old he means things eternal, confined neither beginning nor end; as we read in Daniel: Thrones were placed, and the Old of Days sat.

Next they come to Libnah,^[1] which means whitewashing. I know that in some respects whitewashing has a pejorative connotation, as when we speak of a whitewashed wall^[2] and whitewashed tombs.^[3] But this whitewashing is that concerning which the prophet says, You will wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.^[4] And again Isaiah says, Though your sins are like scarlet, I will whiten them like snow and will make them white like wool.^[5] Again in the psalm, They were whitened with snow in Zalmon.^[6] And the hair of the Ancient of Days is said to be dazzling, white, that is, white like wool. So then, this whitewashing must be understood to come from the radiance of the true light and to descend from the brightness of heavenly visions.

This is spoken anthropomorphically. And its spiritual sense is that he is the king of those who are not defiled with sins. For God says, Your sins shall be as white as snow and shall be as wool.^[1] Wool is the emblem of forgiveness of sins, as also of innocence.

Daniel contemplates his pure hair and his splendid garb, altogether blameless and holy. Daniel had already learned not only his divine nature but also those things that can be understood about it, namely, his righteousness, providence, care and judgment. When he sees a horn using haughty words and plotting countless treacheries against the worshipers of God, Daniel understands through the purity that glistens everywhere that God is not neglecting his people, but out of his ineffable governance of history he is permitting the horn to dare such things.

When the thrones are set and the Ancient of Days takes his seat, and the books are opened, and the fiery stream comes forth, and the light before him and the darkness prepared . . . they that have done good shall go into the resurrection of life, now hid in Christ and to be manifested hereafter with him, and they that have done evil, into the resurrection of judgment, to which they who have not believed have been condemned already by the word that judges them. Some will be welcomed by the unspeakable light and the vision of the holy and royal Trinity, which now shines on them with greater brilliancy and purity and unites itself wholly to the whole soul, in which solely and beyond all else I take it that the kingdom of heaven consists. The others, among other torments, but above and before them all must endure the being outcast from God and the shame of conscience that has no limit.

Through the throne, wheels and river God’s nature is revealed as secure and liable to no reproach; and through the word ancient his eternity, wisdom and clemency is told.

But as it is in the mockery that Celsus says we speak of God coming down like a torturer bearing fire and thus compels us unseasonably to investigate words of deeper meaning, we shall make a few remarks, sufficient to enable our hearers to form an idea of the defense that disposes of the ridicule of Celsus against us, and then we shall turn to what follows. The divine word says that our God is a consuming fire and that he draws rivers of fire before him; no, that he even enters in as a refiner’s fire and as a fuller’s herb,^[1] to purify his own people. But when he is said to be a consuming fire, we inquire what are the things that are appropriate to be consumed by God. And we assert that they are wickedness and the works that result from it and that, being figuratively called wood, hay, stubble,^[2] God consumes as a fire. The wicked person, accordingly, is said to build up on the previously laid foundation of reason, wood and hay and stubble. . . . And, in like manner, rivers of fire are said to be before God, who will thoroughly cleanse away the evil that is intermingled throughout the whole soul.

He who is now despised, the same will then be our judge; think ever on him and the river of fire: For a river of fire we read, winds before his face; for it is impossible for one who has been delivered over by him to the fire to expect any end of his punishment. But the unseemly pleasures of this life do not differ from shadows and dreams; for before the deed of sin is completed, the conditions of pleasure are extinguished, and the punishments for these have no limit. And the sweetness lasts for a little while, but the pain is everlasting.

This was not intended to be a specific number for the servants of God but only indicates a multitude too great for human computation.

And to him to whom we offer firstfruits we also send up our prayers, having a great high priest who has passed into the heavens, Jesus the Son of God, and we hold fast this profession as long as we live; for we find God and his only-begotten Son, manifested to us in Jesus, to be gracious and kind to us. And if we would wish to have besides a great number of beings who shall ever prove friendly to us, we are taught that thousand thousands stood before him, and ten thousand times ten thousand ministered to him. And these, regarding all as their relations and friends who imitate their piety toward God and in prayer call on him with sincerity, work along with them for their salvation, appear to them, deem it their office and duty to attend to them, and as if by common agreement they visit with all manner of kindness and deliverance those who pray to God, to whom they themselves also pray. For they are all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for those who shall be heirs of salvation.^[1]

If this all seems little in your eyes, to be crucified with Christ, to present yourself a sacrifice to God, to become a priest to the most high God, to make yourself worthy of the vision of the Almighty, what higher blessings than these can we imagine for you, if indeed you make light of the consequences of these as well? And the consequence of being crucified with Christ is that we shall live with him, and be glorified with him and reign with him; and the consequence of presenting ourselves to God is that we shall be changed from the rank of human nature and human dignity to that of angels; for so speaks Daniel, that thousand thousands stood before him. He too who has taken his share in the true priesthood and placed himself beside the great high priest remains altogether himself a priest forever, prevented for eternity from remaining any more in death.

Do thousand thousand of angels stand before him, and ten thousand times ten thousand ministering spirits? They are blamelessly doing their proper work by the power of the Spirit. All the glorious and unspeakable harmony of the highest heavens in the service of God and in the mutual concord of the celestial powers can therefore be preserved only by the direction of the gradually perfected by increase and advance, but they are perfect from the moment of the creation, there is in creation the presence of the Holy Spirit, who confers on them the grace that flows from him for the completion and perfection of their essence.

The Son of man, it is written, shall come in his glory, and all the angels with him.^[1] Note, my friend, before how many you will come to be judged. Every race of humankind will be present then. Think therefore of the numbers of imperial citizens. Think what the barbarian nations amount to. Take the numbers now living and those who have died in the last hundred years. Think how many have been buried in the last thousand years. Think of all the human race from Adam till today. It is a vast multitude, and yet by comparison it is nothing much, for the angels are more numerous. They are the ninety and nine sheep,^[2] while the human race is the lone one. For we must suppose that the multitude of inhabitants is everywhere in proportion to the space. Now the whole earth’s surface is like a point when compared with the heaven above it. And the heaven that wraps the earth around is inhabited by a multitude proportioned to its extent. And the heavens of heavens contain a multitude beyond computation. Scripture says, Thousand thousands ministered to him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him. That does not mean that those who were all there were but that the prophet could find no expression to convey more than that. At that day of judgment there will be present God the Father of all, with Jesus Christ enthroned beside him, and the Holy Spirit present with them. The angel trumpet will summon us before them, bringing our deeds with us.

The consciences of humankind and the deeds of individuals that partake of either character, whether good or bad, are disclosed to all. One of the books is the good book of which we often read, namely, the book of the living. The other is the evil book that is held in the hand of the accuser, who is the fiend and avenger of whom we read in Revelation: The accuser of our brothers.^[1] This is the earthly book of which the prophet says, Let them be written on earth.^{[2] [3]} GOD JUDGES WITH EQUITY. ISHO‘DAD OF MERV: The books were opened, not because God needs books, but the prophet is speaking in human terms, according to the style of Scriptures, which speak materially with material beings; in addition, he says that in order to show the rigorous examination, on which the judgments of God are based, that [God] judges with equity and forbearance. ^[1]

That is to say, he affixed the rest of the time to be a time of judgment, and he unfolded the memory of all the deeds done by each and every person. He calls the memory about each person the books. But if someone thinks that this refers to the promise of the Lord made to his apostles, Twelve thrones will be placed, and you will sit down and judge the twelve tribes of Israel,^[1] he would not be far off the mark, inasmuch as the promise of the truth has no part in a lie.

The judgment of God descends for the humbling of pride. Hence the Roman Empire also will be destroyed, because [it is] the horn [that] was uttering the lofty words.

In the one empire of the Romans, all the kingdoms at once are to be destroyed, because of the blasphemy of the antichrist. And the [succeeding] empire shall not be an earthly empire at all, but it is simply the abode of the saints, which is spoken of here, and the advent of the conquering Son of God.

Because of the madness of that beast, he says that it was judged, and the fourth kingdom was destroyed, and the body of the beast was given over for the fire to consume. We ought to take note that he did not simply say the beast was handed over but the body of the beast was handed over for the fire to consume. Since he portrays every kingdom through a beast, and in every kingdom some are pupils of godliness and others are servants of wickedness (the former being commonly called spiritual, the latter carnal, in accordance with the usage of the divine Scripture), he rightly said that the beast was not handed over to be burned but the body of the beast, that is, the cruder sorts of people and those who are fleshly and those who do not think spiritually at all.

The dominion of the other beasts had fallen, although they had spent a period of many years ruling; to each kingdom there was a certain definite time given to rule. When these things have taken place, since all the other kingdoms had been destroyed earlier, also those who were in the fourth kingdom were handed over to the punishment by fire, as they well deserved.

This refers to the kingdoms of the Medes, Persians and Chaldeans. But their lives were prolonged for a season and a time, that is, the kings of the nations mentioned above would have not been completely powerless.

For as two advents of our Lord and Savior are indicated in the Scriptures, the one being his first advent in the flesh, which took place without honor by reason of his being made nothing, as Isaiah spoke of him previously, saying, We saw him, and he had no form or beauty.^[1] . . . But his second advent is announced as glorious, when he shall come from heaven with the host of angels and the glory of his Father, as the prophet said, You shall see the King in glory,^[2] and, I saw one like the Son of man coming with the clouds of heaven; and he came to the Ancient of Days . . . and he was brought to him. And there were given him dominion and honor and glory.

Glance over the whole course of time, and realize in what guise he appeared to Joshua the son of Nun, a prophet bearing his name, or to Isaiah, who relates that he saw him, as the gospel also bears witness, or to Ezekiel, who was admitted even to knowledge of the resurrection, or to Daniel, who confesses the Son of man in the eternal kingdom of the ages, or to all the rest to whom he presented himself in the form of various created beings, for the ways of God and for the works of God, that is to say, to teach us to know God and to profit our eternal state. Why does this method, expressly designed for human salvation, bring about at the present time such an impious attack on his eternal birth? The creation, of which you speak, dates from the commencement of the ages; but his birth is without end and before the ages. Maintain this by all means: we are doing violence to words, if a prophet, or the Lord, or an apostle or any oracle whatever has described by the name of creation the birth of his eternal divinity. In all these manifestations God, who is a consuming fire, is present, as created, in such a manner that he could lay aside the created form by the same power by which he assumed it, being able to destroy again that which had come into existence merely that it might be looked on.

What we proclaim is not one single coming of Christ but a second as well, much fairer than the first. For the first presented a demonstration of longsuffering, but the second wears the crown of the kingdom of God. Most things about our Lord Jesus Christ are twofold. His birth is twofold, once of God before the ages, and once of the Virgin in the end of the ages. Twice he comes down, once all unseen like dew on a fleece, and a second time still future and manifest. When first he came, he was swaddled in a manger. When next he comes, he will clothe himself with light as with a garment.^[1] At his first coming he endured the cross, despising the shame;^[2] at his second, he comes surrounded with glory and escorted by hosts of angels. We do not therefore simply rest on Christ’s first coming, by itself, but let us look forward also to his second. . . . The Savior comes again, but not to be judged again, for he will pass judgment on those who passed judgment on him, and he who previously kept silence as they judged him now reminds those lawless people who did their outrageous deeds to him on the cross and says, these things you have done, and I kept silent.^[3] He adapted himself when he came then and taught humankind by persuasion, but this time it is they who will be forced to bow to his rule, whether they will or not.

If such power is shown to have accompanied and still now accompanies his passion, just think how great shall be his power at his glorious advent! For, as Daniel foretold, he shall come on the clouds as the Son of man, accompanied by his angels.

The blessed Daniel openly teaches what our Lord says in the Gospels: You will see the Son of man coming on the clouds of heaven with his angels;^[1] and the blessed apostle, For the Lord will descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel and with the trumpet of God, and the dead shall rise immortal. And we who remain alive will be snatched in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever.^[2] Daniel foretells the second coming of the Savior. He openly calls him the Son of man because of that nature that he has assumed. He says that he is coming on the clouds, as he himself promised, so that he can show his power. He says that he receives honor, dominion and the kingdom from the Ancient of Days, although he is a human being. In Psalm 2 blessed David says this about the person of the Lord: The Lord said to me, ‘You are my Son; today I have begotten you. Ask me, and I will give you the nations as your inheritance and the ends of the earth as your possession.’^[3] Blessed Daniel states the very same thing: All peoples, tribes and languages will serve him. And he shows that his reign will be without end: His power will be an eternal power, which will not pass away, and his kingdom will not be destroyed. So he adds, when he writes down this revelation.

For instance, Daniel the prophet, under the influence of the divine Spirit, seeing his kingdom at the end of time, was inspired thus to describe the divine vision in language fitted to human comprehension. . . . It is clear that these words can refer to no one else than to our Savior, the Word who was in the beginning with God, and who was called the Son of man because of his final appearance in the flesh.

Does not Daniel allude to this very truth when he says that he who received the eternal kingdom is as a Son of man? The words as a Son of man indicate that he would become man and appear as such but that he would not be born of a human seed. Daniel states the same truth figuratively when he call Christ a stone cut out without hands,^[1] for, to affirm that he was cut out without hands signifies that he was not the product of human activity but of the will of God, the Father of all, who brought him forth.

He who was described in the dream of Nebuchadnezzar as a rock cut without hands, which also grew to be a large mountain and smashed the earthenware, the iron, the bronze, the silver and the gold, is now introduced as the very person of the Son of man, so as to indicate in the case of the Son of God how he took on himself human flesh. [This is] according to the statement that we read in the Acts of the Apostles: You men of Galilee, why do you stand gazing up toward heaven? This Jesus who has been taken up from you into heaven shall so come in the same way as you have seen him going into heaven.^[1]

Who was in heaven but the Word unincarnate, who was dispatched to show that he was on earth and was also in heaven? For he was Word, he was Spirit, he was Power. The same took to himself the name common and current among humankind and was called from the beginning the Son of man on account of what he was to be, although he was not yet man, as Daniel testifies when he says, I saw, and behold, one like the Son of man came on the clouds of heaven. Rightly, then, did he say that he who was in heaven was called from the beginning by this name, the Word of God, as being that from the beginning.

He is called Christ, not for any unction from human hands but from the Father’s, as having been anointed for eternal high priesthood on behalf of humanity. He is called the dead, not as having gone to join the majority, like all souls in Hades, but as the one free among the dead.^[1] He is called Son of man, not as it is said of each one of us that we sprang from earth, but in the context of his coming in the clouds of heaven to judge both the living and the dead.^[2] He is called Lord, not in the catachrestic^[3] sense in which the title is given to people, but as possessing lordship by right of nature and forever. He is called Jesus because the name fits him, and he has that appellation in view of the saving medicine he brings. He is called Son, not meaning that God promoted him to that dignity but that he was naturally begotten as Son.

He revealed to Daniel himself expressly as the Son of man, coming in the clouds of heaven as a judge, as also the Scripture shows. What I have advanced might have been sufficient concerning the designation in the prophecy of the Son of man. But the Scripture offers me further information, even in the interpretation of the Lord himself. The Jews, who looked at him as merely man, were not yet sure that he was God also, as being likewise the Son of God. They rightly enough said that a man could not forgive sins, but God alone. Why did he not, following up their point, answer them, that he had power to remit sins, inasmuch as, when he mentioned the Son of man, he also named a human being? Because he wanted, by help of the very designation Son of man from the book of Daniel, so to induce them to reflect as to show them that he who remitted sins was God and man—that only the Son of man, indeed, in the prophecy of Daniel, who had obtained the power of judging, and thereby, of course, of forgiving sins likewise (for he who judges also absolves); so that, when once that objection of theirs was shattered to pieces by their recollection of Scripture, they might the more easily acknowledge him to be the Son of man himself by his actual forgiveness of sins.

I do not know in what manner these people understand that the Ancient of Days appeared to Daniel, from whom the Son of man, which he deigned to be for our sakes, is understood to have received the kingdom; namely, from him who says to him in the Psalms, You are my son; this day have I begotten you; ask of me, and I shall give you the nations for your inheritance^[1] and who has put all things under his feet.^[2] If, however, both the Father giving the kingdom and the Son receiving it appeared to Daniel in bodily form, how can those people say that the Father never appeared to the prophets, and, therefore, that he only ought to be understood to be invisible whom no one has seen or can see? For Daniel has told us thus. . . . Behold the Father giving and the Son receiving an eternal kingdom; and both are in the sight of him who prophesies, in a visible form.

All that is said here concerning his being brought before almighty God and receiving authority and honor and royal power is to be understood in the light of the apostle’s statement: Who, although he was in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God; but he emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being made in the likeness of humankind, and was found in his condition to be as a man. He humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even to the death of the cross.^[1] And if the sect of the Arians were willing to give heed to all Scripture with a reverent mind, they would never direct against the Son of God the denigration that he is not on an equality with God.

Let Porphyry answer the query of whom out of all humankind this language might apply to, or who this person might be who was so powerful as to break and smash to pieces the little horn, whom he interprets to be Antiochus? If he replies that the princes of Antiochus were defeated by Judas Maccabeus, then he must explain how Judas could be said to come with the clouds of heaven like to the Son of man and to be brought to the Ancient of Days, and how it could be said that authority and royal power were bestowed on him, and that all peoples and tribes and language groups served him and that his power is eternal and not terminated by any conclusion.

The Father, having put all things in subjection to his own Son, both things in heaven and things on earth, showed him forth by all as the first-begotten of God, in order that, along with the Father, he might be approved the Son of God before angels and be manifested as the Lord also of angels.

What, I ask, is more obvious than these words? And all the peoples, tribes and tongues will serve him. See how he embraced every nation of the world. See how he took the judge’s seat and power. Lest you should think that this is temporary, he says, These things will not pass away, and his kingdom will not perish but will stay and remain. But if you doubt, you can be persuaded by considering the matter. Do you see the equality of honor he has with the Father? Since the Son appeared after the Father, he says that the Son came with the clouds. But it is clear from the very clouds that he had existed before then, if indeed he came on them. And honor was conferred on him, namely, the power that he had. And the peoples, tribes and tongues will serve him. Indeed, he had dominion previously, but then he will take that dominion that he had obtained. For just as you understand the hair of the Father and the other aspects of the vision, so you must understand this part of the vision. When you hear it was given and other similar things, you will not think in human terms about the Son or think lowly of him. For though you saw an old man, you did not think that he was an old man, so also you must think about the other things. Do not seek crystal clarity among the prophets, where you will find instead shadows and riddles, just as you do not seek constant light in a thunderbolt. Instead, it suffices if light appears for just a bit.